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Abstract
The presented project utilizes two cases from Mexico to discuss the terrorist aspects of narcoterrorism. Given the ongoing concerns regarding the appropriateness of the term, a contribution to this discussion was deemed useful. In addition, the gravity of the issue and the limited effectiveness of the currently deployed countermeasures justified the analysis of the phenomenon. The purpose of the project was to investigate the features of narcoterrorism that could qualify or disqualify it as a form of terrorism.
Specifically, the project was meant to review two specific cases of narcoterrorism in accordance with the variables that are associated with terrorism (violence, motivation, agenda, and targets) to determine the specifics of narcoterrorism and the implications that they might have. The methodology was identified as a qualitative case study that involved the comparative method and was guided by the framework of substantive grounded theory (specifically, the comparative approach to it).
The project employed the highest-quality sources that it could encounter, including academic ones, as well as newspaper articles, governmental reports, and the reports of non-governmental organizations. The projects limitations included the small number of cases, the specifics of their selection (cases with apparently terrorist features), and sources (no access to police reports was granted). The anticipated outcome consisted of establishing both similarities and differences between narcoterrorism and regular terrorism, which would imply the need to approach the issue with customized methods. The findings justify this hypothesis, and their analysis suggests that a review of approaches to countering narcoterrorism needs to consider its unique nature.
Introduction
Mexico has been fighting the issue of narcoterrorism since the middle of the previous century, and the problem has been affecting other countries as well, especially the United States (US). However, the research related to narcoterrorism has not been very vast. A minor but promising trend in the literature on the topic is to compare the features of narcoterrorism to those of terrorism.1 The goal of that action is to discuss the validity of this term2 and to determine the interventions that might be appropriate for combating the phenomenon.3
The latter outcome is especially significant because of the amount of violence that is associated with narcoterrorism. Indeed, this phenomenon has been causing dramatic increases in the number of homicides in Mexico. The number of murders that were associated with narcoterrorism amounted to more than 33,000 in the previous year.4
This figure is the result of an almost 50% growth since 2011.5 Given the insufficient effectiveness of the currently employed countermeasures,6 the investigation of narcoterrorism is very important for the safety of Mexico, as well as other countries that its cartels have been involving in the drug trade. As a result, this project intends to respond to the question of what are the terrorist features of narcoterrorism attacks in Mexico, and what are their implications for security efforts, as shown through the comparison of two relevant cases?
Theory and Methodology
Theoretical Framework
The presented work uses a specific theoretical framework, and it will also contribute some information that may be used in the debate that is concerned with the concept of narcoterrorism. From the perspective of the framework, a form of grounded theory is utilized to guide the project. Specifically, the comparative substantive theory is the approach that assists in structuring the collection and analysis of the projects data. From the perspective of this framework, theoretical propositions are generated through the comparative analysis of substantive evidence.7 This process results in distinguishing patterns that can be used to make potential suggestions about the character of the studied phenomenon.
In the presented project, the data were collected to describe certain features of two narcoterrorism events, which were compared to determine the similarities and differences between them. The features of interest, which are described below, had been selected based on a literature review of narcoterrorism specifics. The theoretical work was aimed at determining the presence or absence of terrorism features, which, in turn, were used to answer the research question.
The selected number of cases (two) is an inherent limitation given the suggested theoretical framework.8 The similarities and differences within just two cases are not enough to make definitive claims about narcoterrorism as a whole.9 This issue will remain important while evaluating the results of the project, but it is justified since the small sample size enabled an in-depth investigation of each event, which was required for the presented methodology.
Methodology
This project can be described as a qualitative multiple-case study that is based on the comparative method. The specifics of the studied phenomenon, the projects intent and question, and the benefits of the approach determined the presented methodology. Indeed, the question that is stated above could only be explored through the methods that enable qualitative analysis,10 and it also required the comparison of different cases. The ability of the comparative method to produce findings that might be used for a substantive theory on narcoterrorism features is similarly helpful.11 The comparison of particular cases through their in-depth review can be achieved through a multiple-case study as well.12 Therefore, the methodology is sufficiently connected to the research question and consists of well-aligned elements, including its theoretical framework.
Regarding the more specific methods, the data for the case studies were collected from available resources that discussed narcoterrorism cases, including newspaper articles, governmental reports, the reports non-governmental organizations, and academic literature. The following variables have been introduced. Motivation refers to the reason for an act of terrorism (or narcoterrorism attack).13 It can be directly stated by the perpetrators or inferred to indicate the likely intention.
Similarly, agenda refers to the goal that may be directly stated or inferred based on the specifics of the attack.14 The targets of an act are the people who were directly attacked during an act of terrorism; their reporting was rather straightforward.15 Violence refers to the characteristic of an attack that is associated with the damage that it causes, as well as its brutality; it was determined by recounting relevant details.16
Terror attacks tend to share commonalities with respect to these characteristics, which are often used to define the term directly. From this perspective, the implications of terrorist and non-terrorist features are connected to whether or not it is reasonable to treat drug organizations and narcoterrorism as terrorist organizations and acts of terrorism.17
For this project, the motivation, agenda, targets, and violence of two narcoterrorism cases were determined and connected to the features that are typically ascribed to terrorist acts. The features were then compared (comparative method)18 and used to make conclusions about their similarities and differences and the implications of these patterns.19 The anticipated hypothesis was that the similarities of the cases would demonstrate some terrorism features while also indicating differences, which would be of importance to preventative and other measures in Mexico and abroad.
Literature Review
Introduction
Due to the ongoing debates associated with the term narcoterrorism, as well as the general lack of recent academic sources that would look into it, the topic needs to be further investigated. In this section, a literature review will be conducted for a project that intends to examine the terrorism features of narcoterrorism in Mexico and its implications for national and international security. The aim of the literature review consists of providing a summary of the key knowledge on the topic as related to the projects variables (terrorism features) and key term (narcoterrorism).
Furthermore, the theoretical framework will be described and explained; since the project intends to draw conclusions from the comparison of terrorism features in two cases, the comparative substantive theory will be employed. The review will demonstrate the validity of the topic, justifying its study through the demonstration of knowledge gaps, and provide the context for the case analysis that will follow.
A Summary of the Current State of Knowledge
Background: Narcoterrorism as an International Threat and Actions Aimed at Reducing It
An important concern associated with narcoterrorism, including that from Mexico, is that it has the potential of becoming an international threat. This fact is associated both with the violence of drug cartels and the dangers of their usual operations, which consist of the production and distribution of various harmful and addictive substances.20 While this information is difficult to verify, some evidence suggests that depending on the drug type, up to 90% of the drugs that are currently used by the US citizens may have been trafficked into the country through Mexico.21 Both Mexico and the US have been attempting to reduce the problem by reinforcing border security and cooperating in other instances, for example, through the development of counter-drug and counter-terrorism initiatives. 22
In addition, Mexico is a part of international initiatives on counterterrorism; this fact demonstrates the viability of supranational efforts directed at reducing narcoterrorism.23 Given the potential and current negative outcomes of Mexican narcoterrorism, the consideration of its implications from the international perspective that is proposed in this research is justified.
Narcoterrorism in Mexico; A History of Countermeasures
The history of narcoterrorism in Mexico is worth exploring since its key features are associated with certain historical events. In Mexico, smuggling operations across the countrys border with the US had been formed by the 1950s; however, they used to be relatively peaceful.24 In particular, violent acts like kidnapping or murders were rare, and the politically oriented actions were limited to bribery. The situation started changing due to the War on Drugs in the US, which resulted in a reduced supply but increased demand for drugs, as well as some changes in the safety of drug trafficking.25
Internal events also had an impact on the nature of trafficking; specifically, after the arrest of Miguel Gallardo, who used to control most of the drug trafficking in the country until 1987, multiple drug cartels appeared, and they started competing for power.26
These competitions became increasingly violent because the North American Free Trade Agreement facilitated trade and trafficking in 1994, and the corrupt political party that used to support and control drug cartels (the Institutional Revolutionary Party) was removed from power in 1997.27 All these factors contributed to the increased violence performed by drug cartels with respect to each others members (in the course of competition and fight for territory that can also be termed as drug wars), as well as law enforcement and civilians.28
These days, the connection between drugs and crime is prominently displayed in the behavior of some of its largest crime syndicates. It can be claimed that this version of organized crime is responsible for a large portion of violent incidents in the country, and there appears to be an increase in such events, especially as related to homicides. For example, the number of drug-related homicides in 2007 for Mexico was 2,826 people, but in 2011, it amounted to 16,700.29 Reports of the number exceeding 33,000 in 2018 have been encountered as well.30 Currently, nine major drug-based criminal organizations can be found in Mexico.31
Since the beginning of the 2000s, active steps were made to reduce corruption in the country and fight drug cartels, which resulted in increased incarceration and contraband seizures. These actions prompted the retaliation of the cartels with further increased violence.32 In response to that, the increased militarization of the country was initiated, and it had some positive effects, but it was constrained by corruption and the lack of specific skills and training that would enable the members of the military to address the issue of narcoterrorism.33
In addition, it has been demonstrated that the strategy of arresting the heads of cartels may be associated with a spike in violence both within cartels and with respect to the general population.34In other words, the problem of narcoterrorism in Mexico has not been resolved yet, and the strategies of its solution appear to have had unforeseen negative consequences. This issue may be at least partially attributable to non-specific solutions that did not take into account the specifics of narcoterrorism, including its terrorist features. From this perspective, the investigation of the latter is required.
The Existing Sources
The scarcity of relevant sources makes their quick overview a possibility; this section will help to establish the gaps within the gathered information. This review will focus on recent academic publications that consider narcoterrorism. The sources that study the terrorism aspect of this issue are a priority since they are directly relevant to the project. From this perspective, the most valuable articles are those by Mowell, Phillips, and Salt. Salt directly addresses the complex nature of the term narcoterrorism, investigating the features that might turn a drug organization into a terrorist one.35
Phillips dedicates an article to exploring the employment of terrorism tactics by Mexican cartels and other criminal organizations.36 Mowell does not focus on the terrorism aspects of narcoterrorism, but the author does mention them. In addition, this source provides a very extensive overview of Mexican narcoterrorism and an analysis of its specifics from the perspective of its national and international aspects.37
Additional data can be gathered from two38 articles39 by Trejo and Ley that present an analysis of the Mexican drug war. The authors use multiple methods, including interviews and the data that describe intercartel murders, as well as the murders of officials and politicians that have been connected to cartels. These sources offer a lot of evidence to the violent nature of narcoterrorism, even though the authors do not use that term.
Other helpful sources include the article by Kukreja,40 which provides an overview of narcoterrorism in Pakistan. It does not mention Mexico, but it can be used for a better understanding of narcoterrorism. Also, Ramirez and Muñiz41 analyze narcoterrorism in terms of its coverage by the media, and Ramirez, Madero, and Muñiz42 conducted interviews to investigate the impact that narcoterrorism has on human resource management, especially as related to adapting to dangerous environments. These articles are less connected to the topic of the project, but they are still concerned with narcoterrorism, which makes them valuable.
In summary, the number of recent academic sources that are fully or partially applicable to the project is not very large. Sources that discuss terrorism on its own,43 as well as drug-related crimes, may be easier to obtain, but since the information from them is generally also present within the more topic-specific articles and books, their contribution to this review will be relatively modest. As a result, the presented review is constrained by the scarcity of sources, but it will still be able to identify the projects variables and terms.
Variables
From the perspective of the research question, the key terms that require consideration are terrorism and drug trafficking organizations. The latter one refers to a form of organized crime in which drug-related operations are carried out by large, often transnational organizations.44 The former is more difficult to define, but it can be viewed as a type of crime that is politically or religiously motivated, selective in its targets, and focused on violence and threats that are meant to achieve a particular agenda.45 While rather broad, this definition also incorporates the key variables that will be used for the analysis of the cases.46
Thus, in order to respond to the questions about the terrorist features of an event, the project will employ the variables of violence, motivation, targets, and agenda. The variables and common themes from the relevant literature will be discussed below.
Narcoterrorism: The Defining the Controversial Term
The main term that is being investigated is narcoterrorism, and it has been causing some controversy.47 Generally, narcoterrorism refers to the violent actions, as well as threats, that are performed by drug syndicates.48 Basically, it occurs when criminal organizations or individual criminals that are related to drug production or trafficking participate in terrorism.49 Given the controversy that is related to its terrorism-like features, as well as its specific features that distinguish it from terrorism, narcoterrorism was not always an accepted term. The Mexican government appeared to subscribe to the position that drug-related crimes cannot be terrorism-associated for many years.50 However, the idea that particularly violent cartels could indeed be considered terrorist organizations was expressed by it eventually.51
The primary motivation for this shift in perspective, as well as for the term in general, was that the drug organizations which cause significant destabilization of peace and order, disrespect human rights, and lead extremely violent acts that aim to terrorize,52 are similar in their motivations and actions to terrorist groups.53 Their terrorist features need to be discussed in detail to address the projects variables.
Motivation
Motivation, which refers to the reasons for committing acts of terror, is one of the most controversial features of narcoterrorism. Indeed, drug-related crime is usually economically motivated, but terrorism is associated with political or religious factors.54 It should be noted that finance-related terror attacks have been recorded, including, for example, the targeting of corporations or robberies, but the commonly accepted view is that terrorism is predominantly associated with politics or religion.55 This issue is the primary reason for Salt, for example, to highlight the importance of avoiding the application of the term terrorism to drug-related organizations.56
However, the author also notes that in the case of narcoterrorism, multiple motivations can be involved, which makes the term more valid. These complex motivations remain a feature that simultaneously connects narcoterrorism to terrorism and makes the two different.
Indeed, the term narcoterrorism was coined to describe acts that might be viewed as politically motivated. The origins of the word can be traced back to the 1980s, and it was initially used to define the violent attacks that targeted the anti-drug forces of Peru.57 An attack on the governments forces would fit the criminal and economic agenda of cartels, but it cannot be considered apolitical. Similarly, the attempts to intimidate criminal and non-criminal organizations, as well as the public, into being complacent with cartel activities can be viewed as political. Finally, cartels often support insurgent movements, which makes them explicitly political in such instances.58
In the end, drug cartels fight for political power, and this pattern can manifest itself in their attempts to affect the political landscape of a country.59 Therefore, political motivations are not uncommon for drug organizations, which means that at least some of their activities may resemble terror attacks from the perspective of the motivation variable. In any case, since motivation is60 very61 frequently62 mentioned63 in relation to terrorism definitions, it makes sense to include this variable and analyze the projects cases with respect to it.
Targets and Agenda
One of the key aspects of terrorism is that it has a particular goal or agenda64 that is supposed to be achieved through violence-related coercion. As a factor that is connected to motivation, it is an additional variable that can be used either on its own or to explain the potential motivations when they are not fully clear. The targets of terrorism are determined by the agenda, and they tend to consist of civilians, as well as governmental agents, including police and officials.65 From this perspective, narcoterrorism is not too different from regular terrorism; their targets are common in that both government-related individuals66 and civilians can be targeted.67
The goal of both terrorism and narcoterrorism is usually to instill fear, which can be used for coercive reasons to advance a political agenda; for narcoterrorism, the advancement of economic interests might also be relevant.68 It should also be noted that drug cartels may target their current or former members, as well as the members of other cartels, in which case the goal may be to terrorize the associated organization or prevent cartel members from disobeying.69 Therefore, the targets of narcoterrorism can be viewed as a terrorism feature, and its agendas may also be terrorism-like, which justifies the introduction of both variables, but some variation can be found.
Violence
Violence is a characteristic that unites terrorism and narcoterrorism.70 Among other things, the acts of narcoterrorism involve murders, bombing, and threatening messages, and any combinations of these elements.71 From the perspective of their impact on the infrastructure and morale of civilians, narcoterrorism acts can have the effects of regular terrorism.72
In other words, violence is one of the most terrorism-like features of narcoterrorism, which justifies its inclusion in the list of variables. It might also be helpful to note that the goal of intimidation and demoralization of the target is typical for narcoterrorism groups, and violence is the method of attaining this goal, which is associated with the groups motivation and agenda.73 Thus, all the presented variables appear to be interconnected, which also explains their placement within terrorism definitions and justifies their consideration as the characteristic features that define the terrorism aspect of narcoterrorism.74
The Implications of the Variables for the Terminology
The non-specific analysis of the literature that covers the stated variables demonstrates that while drug organizations and their actions are different from terrorist ones, they are still exhibiting some very similar features. As suggested by Salt, it may not be helpful to label drug-related criminal organizations as terrorist organizations, but the term of narcoterrorism has its value in defining a form of crime that is connected to drugs and has the features of terrorism.75 Indeed, it has been long observed that terrorism and crime, including drug trafficking, tend to be interrelated.76 Therefore, narcoterrorism is a violent, harmful, damaging form of criminal activity, which makes it a threat to national and international security and justifies its investigation.
Hypothesis
The cases that were chosen for the project exhibit at least some features of terror attacks. Both events were extremely violent; two mutilated bodies were found in 2011, and nine bodies were hanged on display in 2019 with ten more bodies associated with the same murders. Furthermore, in both cases, the aim to terrorize people was apparent in that banners with threats were placed near the bodies.77 Therefore, it will be possible to prove that the two cases have terrorist features. The primary implication that follows is that it would make sense to treat such cases as acts of terror. However, a more detailed investigation will show if there are significant factors that make the events differ from terrorism, modifying the steps that can be taken to respond to and prevent similar crimes.
Summary and Gaps in the Literature
The literature from this review covers the topics of narcoterrorism in general and in Mexico, including the history of cartel activities, their evaluation, and the countermeasures deployed against it. Some sources consider the value of terrorism feature analysis for narcoterrorism, and the debate associated with the term is covered well enough for the terrorism-like features of narcoterrorism to receive some definitions. Therefore, the presented literature allows identifying and operationalizing the projects variables.
It should also be noted that the methodologies of the presented articles are helpful for the project. Thus, the majority of the narcoterrorism articles employed archival data and information about various narcoterrorism incidents from news outlets. Furthermore, Phillips and Salt investigated individual cases of narcoterrorism and analyzed them for terrorism and non-terrorism features, after which their comparison was performed. From this perspective, the articles can be used to guide the projects methodology, including its theoretical framework.
The gaps in the studied literature are predominantly associated with its scarcity. Indeed, few articles and other types of reliable sources consider narcoterrorism in Mexico or topics that are closely connected to it. Three academic sources have been found that considered applying terrorism features to narcoterrorism, and only two of them went into significant detail in that analysis. They also have certain limitations, including the focus on news outlets as their sources (rather than primary sources, for instance, police reports). Also, Phillips directly states that certain cases of terrorism could have been overlooked and not included due to their invisibility to the press.78 Therefore, the relevant sources are scarce and may not be all-encompassing.
In addition, both these articles recommend future research; Salt directly suggests the continued investigation of the dual nature of narcoterrorism and its impact or implications,79 and Phillips proposes a continued analysis of terrorist features (or tactics) in organized crime.80 Therefore, the gap in research is definitely present. At the same time, the presented evidence demonstrates that narcoterrorism is indeed exhibiting rather specific features; some of them make it similar to terrorism, and other ones distinguish it in meaningful ways.81 Therefore, filling the identified gap may be most helpful for narcoterrorism-related security measures.
In addition, the term narcoterrorism remains contentious, which may be one of the causes of the scarcity of recent articles dedicated to it. The analysis of the terrorist features of narcoterrorism may provide some evidence to the relevance of the term and either support or discourage its use.82 This issue might not be a gap in knowledge, but since it is a contentious point in the related debate, the fact that the proposed project can contribute to its solution is notable.
Substantive Theory
The method and type of inquiry of this project are associated with comparison. Specifically, it is intended to use a comparative analysis of two cases to investigate terrorism features in narcoterrorism events and consider their implications, especially for the security of Mexico and other countries. This approach can be applied to social phenomena, and it is also commonly performed within qualitative studies, which fits the purpose of this project.83 From this perspective, the methodology is associated with a comparative approach to substantive theory, which is a part of the grounded theory methods.
The grounded theory refers to the development of theories from the data that are available at the time.84 The substantive theory is a type of grounded theory that emerges from empiric data and is related to a substantive (or empiric) subject.85 When compared to a formal theory, which deals with conceptual theorizing, a substantive theory is less generalizable but also more specific. Consequently, it is better suited for describing a particular topic that is being studied. A substantive theory might still be transferrable to similar contexts and cases, and it is supposed to be a step toward the development of formal grounded theories. 86
Given the specifics of the projects inquiry, it will be employing the comparative approach to substantive theory, which can be termed as comparative theory.87 The comparative analysis is used to generate substantive theory rather often.88 The process involves accumulating a sufficient amount of data for comparative analysis, which is then used to determine similarities, differences, and any other patterns in the studied cases. With a suitable number of cases, these patterns may become the ground for a substantive theory about the studied phenomenon.89
To summarize, the comparative theory provides the described project with a framework that will guide its processes. It links and orders the methods that have been chosen, including the comparative analysis, and demonstrates the way in which this approach should be used to answer the question. This theory is also suitable for qualitative research,90 which is the intended methodology of this project. Therefore, the comparative theory is appropriate for the project and will facilitate its completion.
Literature Overview
Few recent sources investigated the application of substantive comparative theory; this term is rarely mentioned. As an example, Klimek used the approach to investigate similarities and differences in food industries, which is a field of study that is not connected to the present project.91 However, the literature that covers grounded theory, as well as different approaches to it, is not difficult to obtain. Glaser and Strauss, for instance, offer a very extensive overview of this framework, and their book has been used for this project.92
Other than that, Becks study of revolutions was employed to observe the comparative method in practice,93 and for case study theory, Yins source was studied.94 Overall, the existing literature covers this projects methodological approaches, and some of the sources apply it to qualitative projects. There is no research on narcoterrorism that would explicitly comment on using similar methods, but the two primary95 articles96 of the project employ comparisons. Therefore, the existing literature supports the presented approach.
Conclusion
This sectio
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