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Abstract
Managing construction waste is often a difficult process because its poor implementation could lead to unintended consequences for contractors, clients, and the public. This is why the evidence presented in this paper demonstrates that the failure to look for effective waste minimisation strategies is unsustainable. Therefore, effective elimination and waste management processes should form part of the design and planning processes of construction activities. Based on this understanding, this paper shows that the design stage is the most effective construction planning stage that could have the most positive effect on waste minimisation processes.
In pursuit of sustainable development objectives, many countries are grappling with the problem of increased solid waste production and its negative impact on the environment. The construction industry is a leading producer of these solid wastes. Statistical and environmental reports in different parts of the world show that different countries contribute to the global solid waste production (Watson & Howarth 2012). Different national statistical and environmental reports reflect these findings. For example, the United States Environmental protection Agency says that the North American country produces more than 170 million tonnes of construction waste, annually (Gudigar & Devanand 2014). Comparatively, the European Union produces more than 2 billion tonnes of construction waste (Watson & Howarth 2012). European Statistics show that different countries have different contributions of construction waste. For example, Germany is the biggest producer of construction waste because it produces 59 million tonnes of construction waste per year (Al-Hajj & Hamani 2011). United Kingdom, France, and Italy follow it in the following order
Hong Kong produces 3158 tonnes of construction waste per day (Al-Hajj & Hamani 2011). The UAE is a similarly big contributor of construction waste because 75% of its solid waste is from the construction industry (Al-Hajj & Hamani 2011). It is second to America in terms of waste share per capita. For example, the amount of construction waste dumped in Dubai landfill areas, in 2014, is more than 27 million tonnes (Assem & Karima 2011). This is a huge increase because the construction industry only accounted for 10 million tonnes of construction waste in 2006 (Assem & Karima 2011). These figures show an urgent need to manage construction waste.
Methodology
Research Approach
This study used the mixed methods research approach. It was appropriate for this study because it accommodated the use of multiple ways of approaching one research problem. Indeed, as Creswell and Clark (2011) observe, the mixed methods research design allows a researcher to approach a research issue from any relevant angle. Where necessary, it also gives room for researchers to use previous research materials to investigate current research issues and allows them to use investigative perspectives that could help in answering their research questions (Teddlie & Tashakkori 2009).
These characteristics were useful to this paper because this study used information from previous research and included primary information from surveying a group of respondents who were knowledgeable about the research topic. The survey questionnaire included questions that had both qualitative and quantitative characteristics (see appendix one). Using the qualitative research approach, alone, would limit the type of questions asked in the survey by accommodating only those that were open-ended and vague (Bernard 2011). Alternatively, using the quantitative research approach, only, would limit the type of questions included in the survey to include only those questions that require measurable answers (Creswell & Clark 2011). Stated differently, using the quantitative research approach would require the questionnaire to include only those questions that relate to a metrical system (Creswell & Clark 2011). Based on the limitations of using both quantitative and qualitative research approaches, the mixed methods research approach emerged as the most appropriate research method because it accommodated both of these characteristics (Creswell & Clark 2011). Therefore, the main motivation of using the mixed method research approach was to overcome the limitations of using either the qualitative or quantitative research approaches.
Research Design
According to Bergman (2008), a research design refers to a simple set of procedures for collecting, interpreting, analysing, and reporting research information. Research designs are often important to researchers because they guide their choice of methods to use when undertaking a research (Creswell & Clark 2011). They also influence the logic used by researchers to formulate their findings (Creswell & Clark 2011). Nonetheless, choosing a research design for a mixed methods approach is a difficult process because of the complexity of the research approach. However, the nature of the study and its associated research questions were the main considerations that informed the choice of research design for this paper. In other words, matching the design to the study problem, purpose and questions were an important consideration in selecting the research design.
Mixed methods research designs may be fixed or emergent, depending on the nature of the study (FoodRisc 2015). Fixed method designs usually have a predetermined use of qualitative and quantitative research approaches (Buchanan & Bryman 2009). Stated differently, researchers have to plan to use both research approaches before implementing them throughout the study (Buchanan & Bryman 2009). According to Creswell and Clark (2011), researchers use the emergent design when the use of the mixed methods research approach is inevitable as the study progresses. Researchers who use this research approach usually do so when they realise that one method is inadequate for use in the paper (Buchanan & Bryman 2009). This study used the fixed research design, which had a predetermined use of both qualitative and quantitative research approaches.
Data Collection
The data collection process was in two phases. The first phase involved collecting information from published sources of research, such as books, journals and credible websites. The second phase involved collecting information from professionals (who work in the construction industry) through online surveys (see appendix one). The main motivations for using the online surveys were their relative ease of administration, the ease of developing the questionnaires, the ability to collect a broad range of data, and the possibility of collecting error-free data (Wyse, 2012). Furthermore, the respondents gave their views through an online questionnaire because they were in different parts of the world. Thus, for practical purposes, an online survey was the best option for reaching the professionals who worked in different parts of the globe (Buchanan & Bryman 2009).
The virtual space made it possible to collect their views without much hassle. Furthermore, the online survey technique provided an inexpensive way of gathering the research data (Buchanan & Bryman 2009). This was at a fraction of the time and cost it would have taken to interview the respondents face-to-face. The online data collection technique also simplified the data analysis process because it allowed the respondents to input their data, with minimal chances of error. Electronic data storage also minimised the possibility of losing the completed surveys and improved the ease of analysing the information contained in the documents because of the possibility of using electronic data analysis techniques when analysing the research information. For example, it was possible to program the surveys, despite their complexity, by including intricate skip patterns and logic when developing the surveys and reviewing the responses. The use of online questionnaires also helped to improve the validity and reliability of the research findings because they accommodated the use of statistical techniques of data analysis, which similarly improved the statistical significance of the findings (Wyse, 2012).
Sample Population
The sample population included managers of construction companies in the UAE, Europe and America. Although their recruitment in the study was through random sampling, one criterion for selecting them was their knowledge in the waste management practices that characterise the sector. This is why this paper focuses on sampling the views of the respondents (managers) who were aware of the waste management practices of their companies. The respondents gave their views through an online questionnaire that explored different aspects of the research topic, including finding out existing waste management practices in the construction industry, understanding the effects of construction waste on the environment, and investigating different types of construction waste. The respondents got an invitation to participate in the study through an email.
Fifty managers of construction companies received an invitation to participate in the study. However, only 36 of them agreed to do so. Ten companies wrote a letter to express their regrets for failing to participate in the study. They also gave reasons for failing to do so. Among the most common reasons for failing to participate in the study were the unavailability of company executives and their tight schedules. There were no responses from four company heads. There was no bias in selecting the respondents, based on their gender, age, or experience. The random sampling strategy was appropriate for the study because it provided a good representative sample of the views of construction companies, globally. Furthermore, this sampling strategy helped to eliminate bias in choosing the respondents (Buchanan & Bryman 2009). Nonetheless, the greatest drawback of choosing this sampling strategy was the difficulty associated with achieving it. Stated differently, it took a lot of time, money and effort to actualize this sampling strategy.
Data Analysis
This paper has already shown that this study included an integrated review of past research studies and a survey of the views of construction company managers regarding the management of construction waste. The data analysis process sought to analyse the research information based on these sources of data. For purposes of the integrative literature review process, the study employed the content analysis method, which included nine elaborate steps
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Reading through the research articles and noting every interesting bit of analysis
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Analysing the information obtained in step one and highlighting the different types of information obtained, including noting how they help in answering the research questions
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Reading the list and categorising them in order of how they help to answer the research questions
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Analysing the information obtained and finding out if it is possible to merge different research issues to form one major theme
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Comparing and contrasting the major and minor categories of themes identified from the analysis in step four
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Repeating the above steps if the content analysis process reveals only one transcript
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After analysing all the transcripts, the themes identified in each assessment would be subject to further analysis to consider its fit and relevance to the study
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Reviewing all the categories emerging from the content analysis process and evaluating whether there is a need for creating new subcategories
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Returning to the original transcript and making sure that all the information have been categorised well
Based on the above steps, the content analysis method was appropriate for this paper because it helped to reduce large amounts of unstructured information into easily understandable and manageable research data (Dawson 2002). It also helped to identify the trends and relationships that existed in the data collected. The survey findings helped to bridge some of the gaps that emerged during the content analysis process. By combining both sources of data, it was possible to come up with a holistic understanding of the research issue.
Validity and reliability
Secondary data came from books, peer-reviewed journals and credible websites. This study mainly included research articles published within the last decade. The main purpose of doing so was to get updated and relevant data regarding the management of construction waste in the building industry.
Ethical Considerations
The importance of observing ethics in research is unrivalled. Paul (2010) says that observing research ethics helps to promote the research aim. This way, it is not easy to include falsifications and misrepresentations of information in the final research. The ethical requirements for research vary, depending on the nature of the research. For example, using human subjects often has many ethical implications (Israel & Hay 2006). The ethical issues emerging in this paper concern the same issue (use of human subjects) and they appear below:
Honesty
This study observed the principle of honesty through the reporting of the final data. This ethical principle was especially instrumental in analysing the secondary research information. The procedures and publication results characterising the study also manifested this principle. Therefore, the researcher made sure that the research process was free from deception.
Objectivity
Unlike the principle of honesty, which mainly applied to the collection, and analysis of secondary research data, the principle, of objectivity mainly applied to the collection of primary data. This study includes objective research data by avoiding bias throughout the data analysis, data interpretation, and data reporting processes. To do so, this paper reports of possible biases and interests that emerged in the study. Similarly, it includes information concerning how the study avoided/minimised such biases.
Confidentiality
Similar to the principle of objectivity, confidentiality also applied to the collection of primary research data. Communications between the researchers and the respondents were confidential. For example, the paper does not include the names of the managers and the contractors who participated in this study. Similarly, it does not give away sensitive information about company operations that would otherwise jeopardise the operations of the sampled study or reveal its competitive secrets that competitors could use to its detriment. In this regard, confidentiality was an important ethical principle observed in this study.
Privacy
This study always safeguarded the privacy of the respondents. Although the respondents were required to give personal details in the questionnaire, this information did not appear in the final paper. Therefore, personal information obtained from the questionnaire was for purposes of data analysis only. This ethical principle was included in the study to allow the researchers to give information freely. Indeed, by safeguarding their identity and the companies they worked for (or represented), the respondents did not have any inhibitions regarding giving accurate information. I encrypted the information received from the respondents and stored them in a safe location. When the study ended, I destroyed the survey questionnaires.
Consent
All the respondents participated in the study voluntarily. Stated differently, I did not coerce or force them to participate in the study. Similarly, there was no financial incentive given to the participants to take part in the study.
Findings and Data Analysis
The integrated literature review process, in chapter two, reviewed information from peer-reviewed journals, books, and credible websites. It answered the first and second research questions. The first research question sought to find out the main types of construction waste in the construction industry, while the second research question sought to determine the main types of construction waste management procedures in the industry. In answering the first research question, the review showed that construction waste included construction materials that were not part of the earth and that needed to be transported elsewhere (besides the construction site) (Assem & Karima 2011). Some researchers defined construction waste as by-products of the construction process (Gudigar & Devanand 2014; EPD 2015). Although many of the studies sampled in this paper showed different types of construction waste, there was no universal understanding of its main types. Indeed, different researchers defined different types of construction waste, depending on the type of construction processes that occurred in their area of study.
This variability came from a similar variety in construction processes across different parts of the world. For example, construction waste in Canada was similar to construction waste in America because both areas share similar construction processes (EPD 2015). Comparatively, the construction waste of South American countries differed from those in North America because the continent uses different types of construction processes compared to those adopted in North America (Velinni 2007). Despite these variables, most of the sampled studies showed dimensional lumber, drywall, wood, corrugated containers, asphalt, fibreglass, metals and plastic as the main types of construction waste (Watson & Howarth 2012; Assem & Karima 2011). The percentage composition of these different types of construction waste differed across different regions of the world, based on the variability of construction processes. The sampled studies also showed that culture, economy, climate and country wealth affected the types of construction waste in a country (Velinni 2007). For example, Gudigar and Devanand (2014) found out that the wealthier countries have more inorganic waste compared to low-income countries that have organic waste.
This chapter strives to contrast the findings of the literature review process by getting the respondents views regarding all the four research objectives of this study. This way, it would confirm the factuality of the information obtained in the second chapter and answer the remaining research questions. It will do so by highlighting the results of the data analysis process and the survey questionnaires. The two sources of data were supposed to answer the research questions, by finding out the main types of waste in the construction industry; investigating the impact of construction waste on the environment; determining the main types of construction waste management procedures; and finding out the challenges that impede the adoption of effective waste management. These questions sought to answer the main research purpose, which was to find the best way for managing construction waste. The views appearing below highlight the findings of the integrated literature review and the survey. However, before delving into these details, the section below highlights the demographic characteristics of the respondents
Demographic Findings
All the respondents sampled in the paper were enthusiastic about participating in the study. They sent back all the surveys issued to them after filling all the important information in the questionnaire. Despite the lack of gender bias, most of the respondents who took part in the study were male (92% male and 8% female). This statistic was understandable because the construction industry is largely a male-dominated industry. Furthermore, few female managers are at the upper echelons of management, in companies or firms that operate in this industry. None of the respondents polled that they had a lower educational level, below that of an undergraduate degree. The majority of them (60%) said they had a masters degree. Only 2% claimed they had a PHD, while the rest polled that they had completed an undergraduate degree. Higher levels of educational qualification among the respondents could stem from the bias in consulting only managers of construction companies. The 2% of the respondents who polled that they had a PHD were women. However, there was no way to verify this assertion.
When asked to state their experience in the companies they served, the respondents were almost divided evenly across the number of people who polled that they had worked for less than five years and those who had worked for between five and ten years. None of the respondents polled that they had worked for more than 10 years. Based on this statistic, the responses given by the respondents were from a fairly informed view. When the respondents had to self-reflect and explain their experiences with managing construction waste, 98% of the respondents claimed that they had either a strong or a very strong background on the topic. Only 2% of the respondents claimed to have a medium understanding of the topic. None of the respondents claimed to have a weak or very weak understanding of construction waste management practices in the construction industry. These findings showed the respondents confidence in answering the research questions. The following sections of this chapter highlight the respondents views regarding different aspects of the research questions
Types of Construction Waste
Understanding the most effective ways of managing construction waste requires a proper understanding of the different types of construction waste. This was a key question in the survey because the respondents were required to state the different kinds of construction waste that they knew. The second part of the survey questionnaire required the respondents to prioritise different types of construction waste in the order of their impact on the environment. All of the respondents polled that glass had the strongest impact on the environment. They also polled that metal waste, wood waste, agricultural waste, and paper waste had the most impact on the environment, in that order. It is unclear what criterion informed their decision, but based on their answers, they analysed the question depending on the biodegradability of the wastes. For example, the respondents singled out glass and metal as the types of construction waste that had the most impact on the environment because they were non-biodegradable. Biodegradable wastes, such as wood, paper and agricultural waste, emerged at the bottom of this list. Stated differently, the respondents felt that these wastes had the least impact on the environment. The diagram below shows how they polled
When the respondents had to state the largest contributors of construction waste, 46% of them polled that demolition was the largest contributor of construction waste. Only 42% polled that renovation was the greatest contributor of construction waste, while only 12% believed that refurbishments were the greatest source of construction waste.
The integrated literature review showed that different stages of construction affect the volumes of waste produced (Watson & Howarth 2012; Velinni 2007). For example, some of the studies showed that construction waste emerged in the design, procurement, operation, and materials handling stages of the construction process (Yi & Li 2014; Assem & Karima 2011). Some studies showed that many construction waste materials emerged because of ineffective designs (Velinni 2007). EPD (2015) recommended that the reduction of construction waste should happen at the design stage. It also highlighted human weaknesses as a major contributor of construction waste (EPD 2015). Similarly, some of the studies sampled showed that contractor behaviour was a significant contributor of construction waste (Yi & Li 2014). Most of the waste accrued this way emerged from ineffective materials handling procedures such as poor product knowledge and improper storage of building materials as the main potential causes of construction waste (by contractors). Some researchers also noted that poor transportation methods contributed to the high volumes of construction waste in some countries (EPD 2015).
National cultures and ethos that usually permeate through the operational dynamics of the construction industry also emerged as significant contributors of construction waste (Yi & Li 2014). For example, some of the studies showed that the lack of awareness of the construction waste problem made it difficult for countries to see the need of tackling the problem in the first place (Daven & Klein 2008; Velinni 2007). Indeed, by failing to see construction waste as a serious environmental problem, countries are incapable of managing it. This is why the survey questionnaire sought the respondents views regarding whether they saw construction waste a significant problem or not. From a poor culture that fails to see construction waste as a serious problem, construction companies often lack the incentive to manage their waste effectively. If governments do not provide the incentive for such companies to dispose their waste, properly, there can be little progress made to tackle the problem of increasing construction waste.
Procurement also emerged as another source of construction waste because the process led to incorrect delivery methods, purchasing inadequate materials for construction, using poor quality materials for construction, getting poor advice from suppliers and failing to take back schemes (Gudigar & Devanand 2014). Lastly, some of the articles sampled in this paper showed that poor operational dynamics in the construction industry, such as using unskilled labour, employee negligence, poor communication and poor coordination, also contribute to construction waste (Watson & Howarth 2012; Kubba 2010).
The sampled studies also showed that the volume of construction waste is increasing in many parts of the world (Napier 2012; Goumans 2010). Other types of waste that are comparable to construction wastes include horticulture waste, general waste, and liquid waste. However, construction waste is among the biggest waste contributors in the world (Napier 2012; Goumans 2010). Studies, which have sampled countries that have a vibrant construction industry, such as the UAE, show that the construction industry could contribute up to 68% of the total waste products in the country (Kubba 2010; Gudigar & Devanand 2014).
Main Sources of Construction Waste Contributing To the Volume of Construction Waste
Refurbishment Waste
Few of the respondents chose refurbishment waste as a common type of construction waste. The different types of construction processes that characterise different parts of the world could explain this outcome. Indeed, some countries do not consider refurbishment as a viable construction process; instead, they prefer to construct new buildings afresh. The literature review process also revealed that there is scanty information explaining this type of waste. One of the respondents pointed out that refurbishment waste was a problematic type of waste because it often arises from small construction projects. It is difficult to enjoy the benefits of adopting strategic resource efficiency when this type of waste is in small amounts. However, as Gudigar and Devanand (2014) observe, local authorities could sanction the collection of such wastes and subject them to a large scale recycling process that would allow people to enjoy the benefits of strategic resource efficiency. Some of the literature sampled in this paper showed that the greatest weakness of this approach is the ignorance of local laws regarding practical policies on resource efficiency (Velinni 2007). The recycling potential for refurbished waste is also minimal, compared to other types of construction waste. Contractors may also refrain from managing this waste off-site because of poor financial gains associated with such waste matter. Therefore, the downside to the management of refurbishment waste is the high cost of managing this waste.
Demolition Waste
Demolition waste was third in the line of construction wastes chosen by the respondents. This type of waste often occurs when contractors demolish buildings for purposes of building new ones. Some common types of demolition waste include insulation, electrical wiring, and wood (Gudigar & Devanand 2014). Other common types of demolition waste include rebar, concrete, bricks, lead and asbestos (Velinni 2007). Common types of demolition waste include concrete, aggregates, glass, and bricks. This kind of waste often originates from soft-strip activities (Yi & Li 2014). Some of the demolition wastes deposited in landfills are hazardous to the environment and human health. For example, plasterboards are hazardous to the environment because they release hydrogen sulphide gas, which is harmful to the environment (Daven & Klein 2008). However, unlike refurbishment waste, the potential for recycling demolition waste is high. For example, for many years, contractors have crushed rubble and used it to construct new buildings (Assem & Karima 2011; Daven & Klein 2008). However, regulations often affect the quantity of waste available for recycling because many jurisdictions have laws that govern how contractors should sort out their waste (Yi & Li 2014). Such regulations affect the quantity of waste that most contractors could haul away to recycling facilities. Indeed, it is common to find that some contractors cannot move demolition waste materials to landfill areas until local authorities come to ascertain that they have observed safety guidelines (Assem & Karima 2011). Among the greatest concern for local authorities is the disposal of hazardous waste material, such as lead, that, sometimes, form part of demolition waste (Li & Chen 2007).
Despite these findings, the integrative review process went a step further to explore this research issue by showing that construction waste could split into two groups wastes emanating from construction, demolition, and renovation, plus waste emanating from land clearing and development (Gudigar & Devanand 2014). The first category of waste includes gypsum wallboard, steel, glass, bricks, concrete, asphalt roofing, pipe and lumber (Daven & Klein 2008). The second category of construction waste includes organic materials moved from th
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