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Executive Summary
This research paper investigates the nexus between human trafficking and national security from an economics perspective. The main research variables investigated in the inquiry relate to the global sociopolitical issues, economic interests underpinning the trade, and health factors affecting national security. The secondary research method was used to gather data published in the last five years. The research process involved searching for scholarly research materials discussing human trafficking and national security issues, especially in the US. Data was obtained from three databases, including Sage Journals, Emerald Insight, Google Scholar, Springer, and Google Books. The keywords used in this search included human trafficking and national security. The inclusion and exclusion criteria for the study were based on the publication date. Materials that were older than five years were excluded from the review due to limited relevance to human traffic issues affecting contemporary society.
Therefore, those that were published from the year 2017 were included in the study. The researcher lay emphasis on gathering credible sources of scholarly data, including books, journals, and credible websites. The credibility of these websites was ascertained by authorship because the researcher lay emphasis on using online information from institutions, organizations, and government agencies. Overall, this research process yielded the several thematic areas. Additionally, it was revealed that the body of literature on the research topic is still underdeveloped. However, three hypotheses relating to the three above-mentioned variables were affirmed because public health, sociopolitical factors, and economic interests moderate the effect of human trafficking on victims.
Introduction
Background of the study
Human trafficking is a social and security problem for authorities worldwide. It is a form of organized crime enabled by people working as sourcing, facilitating, and destination agents. They enable people to move from one jurisdiction to another in search of work or employment opportunities illegally (Jurek & King, 2020). Most victims of human trafficking end up scammed or forced to work jobs that they did not intend to do. Relative to its abusive nature, authorities refer to human trafficking as the sale of people or humans mainly for exploitative purposes (Atkinson & Hamilton-Smith, 2022). In this regard, the economics of human trafficking plays a critical role in facilitating the trade because demand for human services in the market creates a supply for the same.
It is estimated that human trafficking is the third largest form of organized crime in the world. Its participants are estimated to make in excess of $150 billion annually from this trade (Institute for Womens Policy Research, 2022). Again, based on its abusive nature, critics argue that the market has a rampant violation of human rights because of the tendency to treat human beings as commodities (U.S. Department of Justice, 2022). In this regard, human trafficking activities do not contribute to the development of a nations Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Instead, they create a loss in this measure because the money generated from the business is often used to fund illegal activities.
Comparatively, the concept of national security is commonly cited by many authors but rarely conveying the same meaning. For example, some researchers have confused national security to mean global security, while others consider it a subjective term in the same way as they do peace and identity in international political theory (Osisanya, 2022). In the context of this study, national security means the context of a society maintaining its authentic identity. It implies avoiding troublesome people or situations that may comprise the overall peace and security of others.
National security is an important concept in the realization of peace and defense objectives of a country. It equally outlines costly mistakes made by generals and the aftermath of their decisions in the end. Some of these mistakes have been too painful to remember while other people have no emotional attachment to them whatsoever. This is why peace is often unpredictable and difficult to understand how to maintain it, especially in fractured societies where protagonists fight for power and control (Press Books, 2022). Despite these categorizations of national security, security is an important feature of natural justice even when a person does not need it. However, for purpose if this probe, it has been included in this paper to highlight the need or better coordination and management of government and state functions to uphold security, which is the bedrock of a countrys economic activities.
The content outlined above defines important concepts of national security and human trafficking. However, little is known regarding how the two concepts interact. Based on this statement, this research paper presents the argument that human trafficking is a threat to national security because of its potential to facilitate the illegal entry of criminals in safe societies. It is also argued that human trafficking worsens people general health outcomes and creates a pathway for unscreened people to enter a country through an unmanned border. Therefore, the risk of a worsening health outcomes is true with human trafficking victims (Wagner et al., 2019). A nexus between human trafficking, the sale of human organs, terrorism, prostitution, and forced child labor is established to support this thesis.
The study explains similarities between different forms of human trafficking and their impact on national security. The evidence supporting this thesis is based on the routine activities theory, which suggests that crime thrives when the right conditions are present. Therefore, it is assumed that criminals deliberately engage in crime after weighing the cost and benefits of doing so. This argument is relevant in understanding the relationship between human trafficking and security in this study.
Statement of the Research Problem
The statement of the present research problem is based on the nature of the relationship between traffickers and national security agencies. This analysis is based on the causes and effects of human trafficking on individual and national security programs. Figure 1.1 below highlights the nexus between human and national security challenges.
As highlighted above, human security overlaps with national security interests to create an overriding sphere of peace when the balance is achieved. This equilibrium is desirable in an uncertain environment where forces relating to business and politics conspire to foster human trafficking (Munro-Kramer et al., 2022). In this analysis, it is important to acknowledge that trafficking people leads to forced labor, prostitution, or slavery (Cruyff et al., 2021). However, maintaining an environment where these vices do not exist is often elusive because many people are vulnerable to traffickers around the world. According to the International Labor Organization, more than 24.9 million people have fallen victim to transnational organized crime (Ecker, 2022). Most of these people about 20 million are trafficked to provide compulsory labor, while another four million of them are forced into prostitution (Ecker, 2022). In this regard, human trafficking comes with high social and political costs to victims, their families, and the communities they hail from.
It is critical to view human trade from its social cost to understand the extent of the impact of human trafficking on societies. A social analysis of the crime leads to the identification of its negative effects on victims. Particularly, it exposes targets to physical and psychological abuse, which may manifest in acute emotional and health problems (U.S. Department of Justice, 2022). Consequently, human trafficking has been linked with serious mental illnesses and poor negative health outcomes, such as Human Immunodeficiency Syndrome (HIV), Autoimmune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), drug abuse, and forced marriages (Munro-Kramer et al., 2022; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2022). Therefore, individuals and societies are affected by crime in equal measure.
From a security perspective, human trafficking threatens physical and virtual boundaries that authorities have put in place to secure and prevent the unauthorized entry of people across jurisdictions (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2022). This breach creates vulnerabilities in physical national security systems because criminals and terrorists could use the same networks to traffic people who intend to commit crimes (Fouladvand & Ward, 2019). This statement explains the close relationship between human trafficking and national security. The nexus between human trafficking and security highlights the need to understand their structures and operations. This investigation is important and relevant to contemporary society due to rapid technological change, which has led to the evolution of crime. Particularly, it is important to explore the economic systems supporting human trafficking and potential solutions that could be developed to minimize its intensity.
Problem Statement
It is believed that human trafficking is an old trade in the same manner as drug trafficking and prostitution are deemed to be ancient businesses. However, what is new to contemporary academic literature is the rapid growth of human trafficking due to technology use and the spread of the internet (Heynen & van der Meulen, 2022). Particularly, the growth and continued acceptability of social media, mobile applications, and global financial systems in society have led to an upsurge of cases involving human trafficking (Hu, 2022). This change stems from the transformational nature of technology on the structure and operations of organized crime networks (Beverungen et al., 2019). Modern technological methods have received some of the highest mentions in contemporary literature for transforming how crime networks communicate or interact with their victims (Heynen & van der Meulen, 2022; Hu, 2022). Notably, technology has been identified as a catalyst for changing how criminals recruit victims, advertise their services, and even blackmail people.
Technology has facilitated human trafficking in the same manner as it has enabled authorities to investigate associated cases. For example, it has been used to conduct surveillance on potential criminals, thereby enabling authorities to dismantle criminal networks (Europol, 2022). At the same time, it has made it possible for authorities to collect digital evidence on traffickers, thereby improving the quality of cases brought against traffickers (Europol, 2022). Thus, from an investigative perspective, technology use has improved the capacity of authorities to investigate and prosecute linked cases. Overall, this analogy insinuates that technology has a significant effect on human trafficking and security.
The growth and development of human trafficking in the digital era has led to an evolution of crime to create new formats of trade that were hitherto unknown to authorities. This problem has made it difficult to understand the full scope of human trafficking or the potential means through which it could be mitigated (Hu, 2022). This gap in investigative plans has led to the under-equipment of authorities and policymakers in addressing the challenges posed by crime (Jurek & King, 2020). Broadly, technological growth has created one driver of change in the human trafficking space.
Recent human health challenges brought by the COVID-19 pandemic have had a similar effect on societies. Notably, the high numbers of human trafficking cases reported from the year 2020 have been partly driven by the health pandemic (Schroeder et al., 2022). It has had this impact by increasing the number of vulnerable families to financial exploitation. Consequently, low-income members of society are exposed and vulnerable to agents of the human trafficking trade.
International organizations have drawn attention to the effects of global health pandemics on national security. For example, the World Bank observes that the COVID-19 pandemic has increased the number of people living in extreme poverty by 70 million (Bigio & Welch, 2022). This figure represents an increase in the number of families around the world who are vulnerable to exploitation. Most of these people may fall prey to risky job offers, online scammers, high-interest loans, and low-paying jobs to survive, and human trafficking thrives under these conditions (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2022). Based on this assessment, it is prudent to address this problem by investigating it as a national security issue.
Purpose and Objectives of the Study
The purpose of this investigation is to understand the ways that human trafficking affects national security in the US. This research goal makes it possible to understand the nexus between human trafficking and national security interests in the US. It stems from discussions that have explored the extent of the impact of crime on human societies (Foot et al., 2021). However, unlike other studies that have examined the problem from geopolitical and security angles, the current investigation adopts an economic perspective to the analysis. To this end, the following objectives will be achieved at the end of this investigation.
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To explore the nature of economic interests in abating human trafficking in the US.
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To investigate the link between health costs of human trafficking and national security in the US.
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To identify global sociopolitical issues enabling the trade of humans in the US.
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To propose economic solutions for minimizing human trafficking in the US.
The objectives highlighted above are designed to highlight the relationship between human trafficking and current security challenges affecting the US. The focus is on the economic aspects of the crime with a unique mention of health and global sociopolitical challenges as key pillars of national security interests in America. Therefore, the underlying premise for the development of the above-mentioned research objectives is to establish the nexus between human trafficking and security challenges affecting the US.
Rationale of the Study
The current investigation, which seeks to explain the nexus between human trafficking and national security challenges, stems from an appreciated role of institutional performance and health development as functions of national security advancements. The relationship between these variables stems from the important role played by improved health outcomes in promoting sustainable development (World Health Organization, 2022). Therefore, in the context of the current investigation, health and institutional performance are regarded as national security issues. They are addressed from an economics perspective by highlighting the monetary interests that keep each player active in the human trafficking trade (Muthuri & Kirigia, 2020). It is assumed that identifying the economic gaps and benefits that players in this business exploit to further their interests will contribute to the development of efforts to dismantle such networks.
The findings of this study will be useful to the expansion of the current body of work on human trafficking and national security. As will be highlighted ion subsequent sections of this document, the relationship between human trafficking and national security is not well developed. Therefore, the current body of research will improve this area of the study because by explaining the place of the current investigation in daily political discourse of a country. The findings of this investigation will also contribute towards the development of economic solutions for current world problems. This is true because the current line of question adopted in the current inquiry is based on the use of economic solution to solve some of the worlds most pressing problems.
Definitions
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Gross Domestic Product: This is the total estimated value of goods and services in an economy. The measure is often used by economists to compare the wealth of nations and predict human development outcomes.
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Transnational Organized Crime: In the context of this study, the term transnational organized crime will be used interchangeably with national security. It means the occurrence of human trafficking activities across international borders and involving multiple players distributed around different parts of the world (U.S National Security Council, 2020).
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Prostitution: The act of sex commercialization.
Limitations of the Study
The limitations of a study refer to factors that are out of the control of a researcher when developing findings. In the context of the current investigation, the main limitations of the study were the date of publication of the research materials used to develop the findings of this study as well as their typologies. In the latter area of analysis, only books, journals, and credible websites were included in the current study. Credible websites contained institutional web reports, national safety and crime awareness documents, publications developed by law enforcement agencies, health agency reports, and documents prepared by human rights groups. These types of materials were included in the current probe because of their relevance and validity to the topic of discussion. Furthermore, most of the agencies preparing these reports have done extensive research on human trafficking across international borders and are in possession of a wealth of evidence on the research topic.
Method
In this section of the analysis, techniques adopted by the researcher to obtain primary research data are discussed. The format for the review is based on the research onion framework (Lê & Schmid, 2022). It suggests that five frameworks of review should be discussed when exploring techniques adopted by researchers in collecting data from respondents. The six levels include research philosophy, approach to theory development, design, method, time analysis, and techniques/procedures, which include data collection and analysis methods.
Four types of philosophies are applicable in research studies and they include positivism, interpretivism, post-modernism, and pragmatism (Lê & Schmid, 2022). Based on an overview of the merits and demerits of each technique, the pragmatism approach was adopted in the current probe. This decision was informed by the researchers desire to develop strategies that would enhance the relationship between human trafficking and national security outcomes. In other words, the pragmatism research approach helped to identify what works best for the success of the industry (Lê and Schmid, 2022). This framework of review made it possible to find innovative ways of addressing the market challenges of pharmaceutical supply in low-income neighborhoods.
Comparatively, the approach to theory development adopted in this investigation refers to the methodology chosen by the researcher to develop the findings. There are two main approaches to theory development deductive and inductive techniques (Lê and Schmid, 2022). The deductive method is designed to test specific theories, while inductive approaches generate theories (Lê and Schmid, 2022). Based on this difference, the current probe aligns with the inductive approach to theory development. Its positioning in the study is informed by the desire to develop strategies that would complement the success of the proposed business idea (Lê and Schmid, 2022). Therefore, similar to the manner the inductive method generates theories, the deductive method was used to analyze the human trafficking market
In terms of research methodology, two main frameworks are adopted in academic studies qualitative and quantitative. The qualitative approach is applicable in study contexts that involve subjective variables (Lê and Schmid, 2022). Comparatively, the quantitative technique is adopted by researchers to measure variables that can be quantified. Alternatively, these two methodological approaches could be combined or used independently to meet the objectives of a study. Given that the topic of the investigation is on bridging an existing market gap, a combination of both qualitative and quantitative techniques was adopted in the study. The justification for using both techniques is rooted in the exploratory nature of the project. For example, meeting consumer expectations is a qualitative aspect of the investigation, while estimating the financial cost of stopping trafficking is a quantitative discussion. The mixed methods framework helped to accommodate both sets of data in the study.
In terms of strategy development, researchers can employ several schemes to meet the objectives of an investigation. Common strategies include surveys, case studies, archival research, ethnography, and action research (Lê and Schmid, 2022). The decision to select the most appropriate strategy should be informed by the importance of maintaining consistency of approach across various levels of methodological analysis. To this end, the archival research technique was employed as the main research strategy. It helped the researcher to get a sample of industry views regarding the research topic. The publication date of the research materials reviewed in this investigation formed part of the limitations of this study. Publications that were older than five years (2017-2022) were excluded from the analysis to obtain updated information for scrutiny. Therefore, it was assumed that research materials that were published before 2017 were less relevant to the current national security issues facing the US, compared to those which were published later. This information was useful in tweaking the research strategy to have maximum impact on the market.
Alternatively, the time framework for analyzing a studys findings outlines the modalities adopted by a researcher when timing the sequence of data collection. The two major formats for time series analysis include the longitudinal and cross-sectional time formats (Lê and Schmid, 2022). The cross-sectional time series framework allows researchers to collect data at once, as opposed to the longitudinal technique which requires researchers to gather data at different intervals (Lê and Schmid, 2022). Based on these differences, the researcher used the longitudinal time series approach because it was important to capture the views of the target audience at once. This strategy enabled the researcher to create a snapshot assessment of the trafficking industry, which were then used to create homogenous strategies for future planning. The cross-sectional approach was inapplicable to the investigation because consumer behavior changes across time. Therefore, it was difficult to obtain a snapshot assessment of their views on the proposed business at different points in time.
Theoretical Framework
The routine activities theory is the main theoretical framework for the present study. Marcus Felson and Lawrence Cohen were the original developers of the model, and they did so to explain crime rate fluctuations in 1940-1970 US (Mitsilegas et al., 2019). The history of the theory similarly dates back to the post-world-war II era when it was used to explain an increase in crime rates despite a sustained period of economic growth. The routine activities theory suggested that this outcome happened because prosperity created new opportunities for crime to occur (Mitsilegas et al., 2019). The example of increased automobile use during the post-world-war II era was used to explain this idea.
It suggested that the increased use of cars created new opportunities for people to get away after committing a crime. At the same time, it noted that automobiles created a heightened sense of safety for users who would otherwise be victims of robbery on the street (Mitsilegas et al., 2019). The same argument is used to justify the use of the routine activity theory in this study because technology has changed the human trafficking trade. Given that the focus of the investigation will mainly be on understanding national security issues in the digital era, the routine activities theory will be used to explain the influence of technology in the same way as the car example outlined above.
The routine activity theory has its roots embedded in criminology studies because the model was developed in a law enforcement environment. This is why proponents of the theory suggest that theory is a product of environmental influences (Daly, 2020). Therefore, its premise is based on the ecological systems that support crime occurrence as the first area of a survey in crime analysis (Kumar et al., 2021). In this regard, the routine activity theory suggests that three factors are likely to be present before a crime occurs an accessible target, a motivated offender, and the absence of an intervening force (Australian State of New South Wales, 2022). This theory has been used to prevent crime by identifying critical factors to consider when developing strategies for crime prevention.
The routine activities theory was justifiably used in the current study because human trafficking is an international crime. Its occurrence is contingent on the presence of conditions supporting crime (Pearson, 2020). Juxtaposing these conditions to the framework of the present study reveals that the availability of vulnerable people, the absence/presence of weak institutions to intervene, and the existence of motivated offenders create a perfect blend of circumstances for human trafficking to occur (Vellani, 2021). The three conditions outlined above are equally linked to the forces of demand and supply, which regulate the trade of human beings.
Subject to the comparison drawn above, the motivated offender is the one who creates the demand for human trafficking activities. Alternatively, the presence of vulnerable people creates the supply for human trafficking. At the same time, the role played by government authorities, intergovernmental organizations, and human rights groups in preventing crime are hereby noted as the intervening force in human trafficking (Australian State of New South Wales, 2022). Their effectiveness in managing the supply and demand sides of the trade determines their performance and the impact of human trafficking on national security. Therefore, the routine activities theory links the role of governments as interventionists in transnational organized crime. It compares their role to the forces of demand and supply that support trade in the first place.
Research Hypotheses
As highlighted in this section of the study, four objectives guide the present investigation. They strive to explore the effects of economic interests, health factors, and global sociopolitical issues abating human trafficking and affecting national security in the US. Collectively, these areas of analysis are intended to propose solutions for minimizing human trafficking in the country from an economics perspective. Proposals that will be made in this study are consistent with the routine activity theory because they address supply, demand, and intervention forces in human trafficking. Again, the economic interests of various players in the human trafficking trade represent the demand side of the trade, while the effects of the trade on victims present the supply side of it.
In the same breadth of analysis used to assign the role of economic actors and victims in international trade, the role of global sociopolitical forces in influencing the actions of authorities in human trafficking represents the effectiveness of interventionist actions in the value chain. This three-pronged approach to understanding the research strategy is consistent with the theory of the routine activity theory, which mentions three conditions for crime to occur the presence of a victim, aggressor, and a regulatory agency. The present investigation addresses the research issue from these three perspectives. Hypotheses that support the investigation are built on this foundation, and they are outlined as follows:
Economic Interests of Human Trafficking Actors
As highlighted in this document, human trafficking is a complex problem. This study investigates it from an economic angle, thereby justifying the inclusion of the economic interests of the actors involved as a critical area of analysis. This line of thought is supported by research investigations, which have highlighted the place of various players, including buyers, recruiters, and vulnerable people in the human trafficking trade (Heynen & van der Meulen, 2022; Hu, 2022). In this area of analysis, their economic interests are converged and investigated to understand their role in abating crime. The problem with human trafficking is also the same the problem associate with national security as a concept.
This area of the analysis will form part of the demand-side analysis of human trafficking. Nonetheless, given that a majority of scholars mentioned above have argued that the economic interests of various players supersede those of other actors, it can be hypothesized that the financial gains of human trafficking affect the intensity of the vice and, by extension, the security interests of a nation. This statement forms the foundation for the development of the first research hypothesis for the study, which appears below.
H1: Economic interests have a moderating effect on the relationship between human trafficking and national security.
Impact of Health Factors Posed by Human Trafficking on National Security
National security is a complex term that involves human health outcomes. This statement justifies the inclusion of health-related indicators as a conduit for understanding the relationship between human trafficking and national security. These issues primarily relate to the supply side of the trade as it explores the effects of the business on the well-being of its victims. Scholars have adopted a similar understanding of the effects of human trafficking on its targets, but most scholars have adopted a psychological health perspective (Beauregard & Kazemi, 2020; USAID, 2022). Their evidence indicates that most victims suffer from cases of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), rape, unwanted pregnancy, death, violence, and domestic abuse, just to mention a few (Pearson, 2020). The link between these health-related outcomes of human trafficking with national security has been established in academic discourses supporting a healthy nation.
The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic explains the link between health and national security. Climate change and infectious diseases have also received mentions in the same capacity because of their potential effects on the livelihoods of families around the world (USAID, 2022). Their ability to create conflict or instability in society gives credence to the inclusion of health-related factors in the current probe. These conflicts can be explained by the conflict theory, which captures exposes how power is structured and shared (Press Books, 2022). Therefore, stakeholders who fail to show up could fail in the end. Thus, in the context of the scholarly works identified above, it can be deduced that the health cost of human trafficking affects nationa
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